• Andrew Andersen -“MUSLIM GEORGIA” IN 1918-1921

 

Andrew Andersen

University of Calgary

 

“MUSLIM GEORGIA” IN 1918ͳ1921 AND FORMATION OF
THE SOUTHͳWESTERN BORDER OF THE FIRST REPUBLIC

For many years the territory that was known in the late 19th and early 20th century as “Muslim Georgia” was an arena of a series of armed confl icts and disputes between the Ottoman Turkey and Russian empires and during the period of the First Republic – between Georgia, Armenia and Turkey. The fall and parƟtion of Georgian Democratic Republic marked the establishment of the contemporary border between Georgia and Turkey as well as the end of the concept of “Muslim Georgia” as most of it was reincorporated into the Turkish state. The smaller part of the former “Muslim Georgia” remained within the so-called “Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic” which in turn became a part of the USSR. Since the disintegration of the Soviet Empire it has been part of the restored Georgia, but up until now the Georgian part of the former “Muslim Georgia” has been closely watched by some foreign governments and investors that seem to have special interests there.

 

What is “Muslim Georgia”?

In the second half of the 19th century and during the fi rst two decades of the 20th century, the concept of “Muslim Georgia” was used to denote historical Georgian lands that were lost to the OƩ oman Empire in the 16th century and were subjected to Islamization and Turkization. Those lands include the Autonomous Republic of Adjara and most of the region of Samtskhe-Javakhetithat are parts of present-day Georgia, as well as the Turkish provinces of Ardahan, Artvin, Rize and the districts of Olur, Oltu, Şenkaya, Narman, Tortum, Uzundere, Ispir, Findikli and Ardeşen (see Map A).

 

Short History of “Muslim Georgia”

The history of the territories later known as “Muslim Georgia” has been long and dramatic. As of today, many experts in Georgian history including Mikaberidze, Rayfi eld and Suny agree in considering that territory the cradle of both Georgian culture and statehood, as it was there where the first political formation that could be defi ned as an embryonic proto-Georgian state was created in the 7th century BC by the local tribes known as Taokhi (Diauchi).1

At least since the 4th century BC, the lands in question were parts of the proto-Georgian states of Colchis and Iberia.2 The 2nd century BC saw major changes on the political map of the East Mediterranean region and most of the above territories were lost to their stronger neighbors. From 189 BC to 115 AD, those of them lying to the south of the Pontic (Kaçkar) Alps, were taken over by Armenia.3 In 101 BC, the coastal lands to the north of the Pontic Range later known as Lazistan (Lazona / Chaneti), were conquered by the Kingdom of Pontus together with the whole of Colchis and remained within the borders of that state until the year 64 AD when the Kingdom of Pontus was conquered by Rome.4

The middle of the 3rd century AD saw consolidation of the early Georgian states and recovery of the lost territories by Iberia and Lazica (the successor state of Colchis). However, the borders of those early Georgian state formations in the South Caucasus remained unstable for the next 500 years due to permanent wars between Byzantine and Sasanian empires, and from the 650s on, between the Byzantine Empire and the Arabs.1 By the beginning of the 9th century, following the Arab-Byzantine wars and the decline of the Arab Caliphate, most of the Georgian-speaking territory was a patchwork of small kingdoms and principalities. In the lands that centuries later became known as “Muslim Georgia”, the fi rst decades of the 9th century saw the birth and rise of a new Georgian state in TaoKlarjetiwhere prince Ardanase of the Armeno-Georgian House of Bagrationi (Bagratuni) united under his power the provinces of Artaani, Erusheti, Kola, parts of Tao (also known as Tayk in Armenian) and the principalities of Klarjeti, Ojrkhe and Tsunda.2 By the year 826, Ardanase’s son, Ashot I the Great was granted the title of Kuropalates (Guardian of the Palace) by the Byzantine emperor, expanding his domain by annexing Samtskhe, Trialetiand parts of Shida Kartli and transforming it into the Kuropalatinate of Iberia which became the strongest Georgian state of the early 800’s with its centre in rtanudji (now Ardanuç in Artvin Province of Turkey).3   Shortly before his death, Ashot I proclaimed himself hereditary ruler of Iberia. Between 1008 and 1014, King Bagrat III, who was a descendant of Ashot I, created the fi rst united Georgian Kingdom bringing together all Georgian kingdoms and principalities under his crown.4

Between 1065 and 1080, the whole of Georgia, including the lands later known as “Muslim Georgia” (but that time still unequivocally Christian), was devastated by the invasions of Seljuk Turks. The decades of struggle against the Seljuk Empire culminated in the re-creation of a united Georgian state during the reign of King David II Aghmashenebeli (1089-1125). This signaled the beginning of the period known as the “Golden Age” of Georgian history. This period lasted until 1223 when Georgia was invaded by the Mongols. During the “Golden Age”, the territory in question was organized into the provinces of Tortomi, Parkhali, Oltisi, Imier-Tao, Amier-Tao, Kola, Artaani, Klarjeti, Shavsheti, Javakheti, Samtskhe (Meskheti) and, partially, Guria.5

The period of Mongol domination was followed by other invasions of various nomadic hordes from Central Asia, and in the beginning of the 15th century, following more than 200 years of constant warfare and turmoil, united Georgia disintegrated into three kingdoms.6 Even earlier, the princely clan of Jaqeli (Jakeli) established a semi-independent domain in the provinces that later became known as “Muslim Georgia”. By the year 1491, the possessions of Jaqeli became a sovereign and independent state under the name of Samtskhe Saatabago.7

Beginning with the second half of the 15th century, weakened and fragmented Georgia was caught between the two expanding Muslim empires of Ottoman Turkey and Persia (Iran). The subsequent invasions of Georgia by Ottoman and Persian forces were accompanied by territorial losses. By the year 1590, the whole of Samtskhe Saatabago was conquered by the Turks and transformed into the vilayet of Gurjistan (the province of Georgia). A few years later most of it was reorganized into the pashalyk of Akhaltsykh (see Map A).8 Almost three hundred years of Ottoman domination over the former cradle of Georgian nationhood were accompanied by its intensive Islamization and Turkization, so that by the end of the 19th century, it had largely lost its Georgian character. The province of Chaneti(Lazistan / Lazona) was lost to the Ottoman Turks even earlier, in 1461, simultaneously with the fall of the Empire of Trebizond.

In the late 18th century, the Russian Empire joined the Ottoman-Persian rivalry for Georgia. In 1801 Russia annexed the Kartli-Kakheti kingdom in eastern Georgia and by the year 1867, the remaining 5 independent states of western Georgia were also incorporated into the rapidly expanding empire.

Map A

Between the years 1828 and 1878, as a result of three Russo-Turkish was, most of “Muslim Georgia” was ceded to Russia by Ottoman Turkey. By the beginning of the 20th century “Muslim Georgia” was organized into the following administrative units:

The annexation of the larger part of “Muslim Georgia” in 1878 by Russia, was met with enthusiasm and euphoria by the majority of the Georgian intellectual elite. However, that enthusiasm was followed by disappointment as the Russian imperial government not only split historical Georgian lands between different administrative units but also because the Russian ecclesiastical administration did not support re-conversion of Muslim Georgians to Christianity, and blocked even the most timid at empts of some Georgian clergy to preach in the districts that had been conquered from Turkey.1

 

Ethnic Composition of “Muslim Georgia” in Early 20th Century

By the beginning of the 20th century, the “Muslim Georgian” lands within the Russian Empire had the following ethnic composiƟ on:2

As can be seen from the above table, Turks were the majority in three of the four districts and in one of the two counties of the Russian-controlled “Muslim Georgia”. Georgians were the most numerous community only in the district of Batum, whereas in the county of Akhalkalak, the majority were  Armenians. It is also important to mention here that according to The Russian Imperial Census of 1897, most residents of fi ve of the six administrative units mentioned above were Sunni Muslims. The district of Akhalkalak (also known as Javakheti) was an exception because more than 70 per cent of its population was Armenian. The reason for that lies in the fact that during the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-29, most of the Islamized indigenous Georgians of Javakheti were actively resisting Russian invasion and, following Ottoman defeat, left  their native land to fi nd refuge in Anatolia (central Turkey). The victorious Russians almost immediately colonized the empty province with some Doukhobors from central Russia and with Turkish Armenians (mostly from the province of Erzurum) who were encouraged by the Russian government to re-setle en masse from the Ottoman lands to the new Russian possessions in the Caucasus.

As for the ethnic Georgians of the Russian-controlled “Muslim Georgia”, one should mention that by the beginning of the 20th century, most of them were Sunni Muslims. Christian Georgians (Orthodox Christians and Catholics) formed a tiny minority in the district of Batum and in the counties of Akhaltsikh and Akhalkalak. In Artvin, Oltu and Ardahan there were practically no Christian Georgians. The described situation occurred as a result of Islamization and partial re-population that accompanied the incorporation of Samtskhe into the Ottoman Empire. About 60% of local indigenous residents belonging to various social groups converted into Islam, while most of those who refused to become Muslims had no other choice but to fl ee the region, mostly in the direction of Imereti. The abandoned lands of those who left Samtskhe were settled by Ottoman colonists, most of whom were nomads of Turkic and Kurd background.1 Since then only the ruins of Christian churches and monasteries including Oshki, Khakhuli, Ishkhani and Otxta Eklesia, as well as the Georgian names of some villages2 , could remind visitors of the Christian and Georgian past of the territory in question. Starting at least from the early 19th century, the large majority of the locals were devoted
Muslims, loyal Ottoman subjects and considered themselves good Turks, notwithstanding the fact that some of them knew about their Georgian or partially Georgian background. 

As far as the portion of “Muslim Georgia” that remained under Ottoman control between 1878 and 1915 is concerned, there is no exact official data available about its ethnic composition. However, basing on the church statistics of the early 20th century, one can say that about 25 per cent of the total population of Lazistan were Christians (Armenians and Greeks), whereas the remaining 75 per cent were Sunni Muslims. Just more than half of the Muslims of Lazistan were Laz people who spoke Zan language, which
is closely related to the Megrelian vernacular spoken in western Georgia. We also do not possess any information about whether or not there were any Georgian-speaking communities in the three eastern kazas of Erzurum Sanjak.

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